| AUTHOR: IAN NOBLE AND RUSSELL BESTLY | [PUBLISHED ON 2005] |
[CHAPTER 1]
This book is intended to provide an introduction into the area of research methodologies for graphic designers. This important aspect of graphic design practice encompasses a wide range of practical and theoretical applications and this chapter introduces the field of research methodology as both an analytical and a practical tool for graphic designers. By investigating these twin areas of research in parallel, we aim to establish the role of critical thinking as a support to the development of what can be described as an engaged form of design practice.
Research is an intrinsic aspect of design practice and an essential part of the activity of problem solving. The designer is involved in a constant process of enquiry. It could be said that this process is predicated upon the notion of questioning – whether that leads to a discreet outcome or solution such as an industrial prototype based on a client’s needs, or whether it contributes to the discourse and debate in the form of a proposition or a further question.
Primary theoretical models of design analysis and visual research will also be introduced, including semiotics, communication theory, systematic approaches to design problem solving, semantics, rhetoric and discourse theory as well as secondary research models and the testing of ideas and methodologies. The underlying emphasis throughout this book is on why we do what we do and how, through testing, feedback and rigorous approaches, we can be sure it is effective in the process of visual communication.
The discipline of graphic design can be defined in a variety of ways – the most persistent definition over its relatively short history has described the role of visual communication as a problem solving activity. This phrase, something of mantra for a large section of the design community, has been employed to describe the function of graphic design in a commercial sense – a sound bite that can be understood by the commissioners of designers – the clients.
This definition has not only legitimised the business and commercial aspects of design, but in parallel has led to a restricted description of the function of graphic design that often excludes what might be considered as the wider social, educational and informational roles of the profession. A broader interpretation of the term 'problem solving' could characterise it as a process of analysis and synthesis. Analysis relates to the methods of investigation, enquiry and understanding central to the research of a project brief, concept or a particular context. Synthesis, meanwhile, is the means by which a designer is able to draw upon his or her initial analytical work and investigation to produce meaningful solutions or interventions. This ability is based upon the individual designer’s intentions and their understanding of a complex range of interrelated issues affecting the creation of a successful graphic solution: audience, message or product, budget, materials, the means of production, the use of an appropriate visual language and the final form the outcome will take.
Many strategies can be applied to this basic framework for research in graphic design, and a number of these methodologies bring with them specific terms that are useful to the designer in describing what is taking place in the development and staging of a graphic design project.
A significant proportion of these terms are drawn from outside the field of graphic design and are borrowed from allied or tangential disciplines that have a long tradition of reflection and debate. Subjects such as linguistics, communication studies, philosophy and the social sciences, for example, have provided useful terms and definitions that designers have been able to adapt and employ in the foundation of a more descriptive language for the processes at work within the creation of visual solutions.
This is not to suggest that graphic design lacks its own specific language. Like many activities with a background and history in the technological arena, designers have developed a wide range of terms to describe what is at work in the production of visual communication. A large proportion of this terminology is rooted in the pragmatic description of technical issues such as colour and type specification and printing processes, or is influenced by the now commonplace computer and software language. Terms from outside the discipline have been utilised to describe a wider, less technically orientated approach to graphic design: theoretical terms such as 'gestalt' or 'rhetoric' often appear in the general discussion of graphic design or in relation to an individual designer’s approach to a project.
THE DESIGNER AND HISTORIAN RICHARD HOLLIS HAS DESCRIBED GRAPHIC DESIGN AS CONSTITUTING A LANGUAGE IN ITS OWN RIGHT,
'A LANGUAGE WITH AN UNCERTAIN GRAMMAR AND A CONTINUOUSLY EXPANDING VOCABULARY'.
THIS EXPANDING VOCABULARY PARTLY REFERS TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GRAPHIC DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY – A RELATIONSHIP THAT HAS SERVED TO DEFINE THE SUBJECT DURING ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.
The most recent, and probably the most significant, development for contemporary graphic designers has been the arrival of the Apple Macintosh computer (first introduced in 1984), bringing with it a new language related to design. At the same time, this advance has made obsolete many of the traditional processes and terms used by graphic designers which related to an earlier age of mechanical, rather than electronic, reproduction. The debate surrounding the impact and value of this particular technology continues today, some 20 years after its initial introduction. The Macintosh has indisputably altered the landscape of graphic design, in particular allowing designers to function in a manner not previously possible and offering new creative opportunities with greater levels of control over production processes than were available in the past.
As a work-platform the computer has been influential in opening up new opportunities for designers, while also acting as a catalyst for much of the new debate within the profession, which could be termed a design discourse. The many discussions, for instance those surrounding notions of authorship, audience and legibility, exemplified in journals such as Eye Magazine and Emigré, have encouraged designers to explore new roles in what Dutch designer and educator Jan van Toorn has described as ‘…the designer’s field of operation’.
The expanding definition of what might be considered the practice of graphic design has been influenced by factors other than technology. The speculative and more experimental work at the margins of contemporary graphic design, an area which could be termed the 'avant-garde', together with a range of self-authored graphic projects have also exerted a strong influence. In many instances these offer new visual grammars and graphic forms and often focus on areas of graphic design previously constrained and under-examined by a singular, commercial definition of the discipline. This recent concentration upon the processes and methods involved in graphic design, the how and the why has allowed the area of research methodologies to take on a greater degree of significance to the subject.
The discussion of graphic design in university design departments, art colleges and design journals now routinely includes reference to a diverse set of issues that include the designer’s responsibilities in a social, cultural and economic sense, the role of the designer in communicating to audiences and the construction of meaning in verbal and visual languages. This wider field of operation has increased the exploration of the processes at work and has broadened the scope of research in graphic design.
For a long period during the development of the discipline the discussion of graphic design as an activity and its place in the wider community was left to external voices – those who received design rather than created it. Whilst in itself a useful tool for understanding graphic design, very few of these voices were heard from within the practice itself. Journalists, historians and cultural theorists who have written about graphic design have usually done so in terms of the artefact or end product and its effect. With very few exceptions the process of design problem solving, the methodologies employed by designers, their intentions and approaches to graphic design were left under-explored in print and in the general discussion of the subject.
As the emphasis has moved away from the external commentator on design, it has instead become increasingly centred upon the growing community of designers and educators who are motivated by the idea of what has been termed the 'reflective practitioner'. Designers are now regular contributors to journals and speakers at lectures and conferences. We have witnessed an avalanche of graphic design publications, all with varying degrees of insight, which focus on the processes and intentions at work. Educational programmes and practitioners are beginning to build upon this graphic design discourse and are, in the process, expanding the definition of graphic design practice itself. This shift towards an engaged and reflective practice is not in direct conflict with the traditions of commercial facilitation. Instead the mutuality or interdependence between design experimentation and investigation and applied design thinking in a commercial sense is increased – allowing ideas of effectiveness and usefulness to inform original and propositional approaches equally.
AS RONALD BARNETT DISCUSSES IN HIS BOOK HIGHER EDUCATION: A CRITICAL BUSINESS:
‘THE ESSENTIAL IDEA IN THIS TRADITION IN THE WESTERN UNIVERSITY IS THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO CRITIQUE ACTION SO AS TO PRODUCE MORE ENLIGHTENED OR MORE EFFECTIVE FORMS OF ACTION. THE CRITICAL THINKING IN THIS TRADITION IS A PRACTICE IN THE WORLD, A PRAXIS. KNOWLEDGE SITUATED IN PRACTICE IS NOT, AS IS SOMETIMES IMPLIED, A NEWISH FORM OF KNOWING ALONGSIDE PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, BUT IS A TRADITION OF ENDURING CHARACTER.’
Research-driven strategies are definitely the backbone of effective communication design. As a natural problem solver, I approach pretty much everything with a focus on understanding and resolving challenges. I love diving into different experiences to figure out their purpose and how they solve problems. My interactions with technology and apps often get me thinking: Is something missing? And when I spot a gap, I make a mental note. This curiosity about the 'how' and 'why' behind design keeps me motivated and drives my growth as a brand designer, especially as I shift more into digital product design.
Over time, my use of research methodologies has really deepened my understanding of their importance in the design process. I’ve seen clear improvements in the projects I’ve worked on because of it.
One of the biggest insights for me has been the distinction between analysis and synthesis. I’ve realized that my design process isn’t just about solving problems but also about digging into context and understanding the audience. Design is not only about solving problems but also about creating experiences, evoking emotions, and fostering connections. A more holistic view of design could enhance the understanding of its multifaceted nature. By using more structured approaches in balance, I can analyze project briefs better and turn that into solid design solutions. This balance between analysis and creativity pushes me to ask important questions throughout a project, leading to more thoughtful and engaged results.
I’m also inspired by the relationship between avant-garde design and mainstream practice. It motivates me to experiment with new ideas while staying grounded in what works commercially. I like to push boundaries in my work, blending both experimental and traditional approaches to create fresh and unique visual solutions.
The science of method, or a body of methods, employed in a particular activity such as the research aspects of a project. A logical, predefined and systematic strategy by which to undertake a graphic design project, to include methods of evaluation of experimental outcomes, a schedule for each stage of the project and a stated intention or purpose in relation to anticipated outcomes. It could also be employed to describe an approach to graphic design in general: a particular manner of working or a procedure used in the production of graphic design. Sometimes used in reference to organisation or a technique of organising and analysing, or a scheme of classification.
A way of proceeding or doing something, especially in a systematic or regular manner.
The study of signs and symbols, especially the relationship between written or spoken signs and their referents in the physical world or the world of ideas. A core strategic method by which graphic marks, texts and images can be deconstructed and interpreted to determine their underlying meanings.
The branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning. The study of the relationships between signs and symbols and the meaning that they represent. Communication Theory The body of work that relates to the study of communication and the ways in which meaning is transferred between individuals and groups through language or media.
The study of the technique of the effective use of language. Written or spoken discourse used to persuade, influence or affect an audience.
A body of verbal or written communication, especially between two or more participants. The act of discussion between parties, often in a formal manner.
The scientific study of language and its underlying structure.
The theory of the underlying methods or grounds of knowledge, and the critical study of the validity, methods and scope of an established body of knowledge.
In relation to graphic design, this indicates the body of widely accepted knowledge that defines the discipline, including those theories surrounding legibility, written language and typography, as well as those drawn from outside of the profession.
Theories such as gestalt, for example, have been drawn from the disicpline of psychology and employed by designers in their working methods and practices. These ideas have influenced the everyday discussion of graphic design practice and the language used by designers to explain their working methods.
The organisation of a whole that is more than the sum of its parts. The implication of meaning communicated through the use of a part of an image or object, rather than the whole.
From the French term meaning literally the vanguard or front-runner. In the context of art and design, the term avant-garde is usually employed to describe the pioneers or innovators of a particular period or movement, often in opposition to the mainstream or status quo. Both avant-garde and vanguard were created by combining the old French words 'avant', meaning 'fore', and 'garde', meaning 'guard' and relate to its original usage by the military.
The notion of the vanguard could also be considered to be a heterodoxy – meaning different, contrary to or unorthodox (in fact, the term heterodox, rather than unorthodox, is the antonym of orthodox).
In graphic design the term avant-garde is rarely used in the discussion of contemporary design activity – more often than not the phrase is applied when discussing the history of the subject. This is not to suggest that there is no current avant-garde in graphic design, simply that the phrase has passed out of common usage.
Interestingly the relationship between the mainstream and the avant-garde operates in a very particular fashion. There are a number of celebrated designers around the world who are considered 'cutting edge' and radical in their approach to design whilst maintaining a successful commercial career with mainstream clients.
Designers such as Stefan Sagmeister and David Carson have received critical acclaim for their ground-breaking and influential work, but have also attracted big corporate clients – in the case of Carson working later in his career with companies such as Microsoft.
This interdependency between the radical and propositional visual grammars of new and challenging work and the mainstream of design can be described as a process of recoupment. This phrase was coined by the Situationists during the late 1960s to describe the ability of mainstream culture to accommodate 'outsider' ideas. The current situation is more symbiotic than the phrase recoupment suggests. The large fees paid by corporate clients support the time and space to allow designers to explore and experiment. In turn the new ideas and visual styles that emerge from this feed into the mainstream of the discipline and become influential for a new generation of emerging designers.
The raw materials which a designer directly works with in relation to research. Primary research approaches might include marketing strategies such as audience surveys or interviews, or the direct testing of potential visual solutions within a ‘real world’ context.
Established or existing research already undertaken in the field and used to support the designer’s own research. This might include published surveys and/or interviews with potential audience groups, together with the analysis of a range of successful visual communication strategies within a similar context.
Research based on secondary sources and the research of others synthesised to simply restate what others have undertaken. A summary of the existing body of knowledge and accepted methodologies relating to the range of intentions, audience and context of the project.